ISSN 1608-4039 (Print)
ISSN 1680-9505 (Online)

For citation:

Ivanishchev A. V., Ivanishcheva I. A., Churikov A. V. Approaches to the investigation of lithium tran- sport in intercalation electrodes based on thin film structures and multiphase composites . Electrochemical Energetics, 2016, vol. 16, iss. 3, pp. 100-121. DOI: 10.18500/1608-4039-2016-16-3-100-121, EDN: YQYJVZ

This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC-BY 4.0).
Full text:
download
(downloads: 153)
Language: 
Russian
Heading: 
Lithium electrochemical systems
Article type: 
Article
DOI: 
10.18500/1608-4039-2016-16-3-100-121
EDN: 
YQYJVZ

Approaches to the investigation of lithium tran- sport in intercalation electrodes based on thin film structures and multiphase composites

Autors: 
Ivanishchev Aleksandr Viktorovich, Saratov State University
Ivanishcheva Irina Anatol'evna, Saratov State University
Churikov Aleksei Vladimirovich, Saratov State University
Abstract: 

УДК 541.136

DOI:  https://doi.org/10.18500/1608-4039-2016-16-3-100-121

Approaches to the theoretical description of electrochemically stimulated processes of transport in solid lithium intercalation compounds were presented; results of experimental verification of the developed approaches and found ion transport parameters in the thin film and composite electrodes based on a number of known and proven lithium-accumulating compounds: LixC6, LixSn, LixWO3, LixTiO2, LiFePO4, Li3V2(PO4)3 were given. The stepwise mechanism of lithium transport in intercalation electrode was shown; it comprises stages of lithium transfer in the bulk of lithium-accumulating material and through the electrode | electrolyte interface. This isreflected in the features of electroanalytical responses of intercalation electrodes in different electrochemical methods. An original method of constructing of thermodynamic potential vs. concentration dependence of intercalation electrode was proposed with the application of the method of coulometric titration: it is based on the prediction of variation of electrode potential over time by extrapolation of the initial portion of the potential transient on an infinite time in the coordinates E – t?0.5. The reasons for the differences (the hysteresis) between E(c) dependencies, when measured by stepwise change of electrode composition (potential) in the anodic and cathodic directions. The necessity of introduction of a correction parameter z in the Randles–Shevchik equation to account for differences between the activity and concentration of lithium ions in solids for the purpose of correct determination of the diffusion coefficient from the data of cyclic voltammetry with linear sweep of electrode potential. The method for determination of the parameter z from the slope of the experimental dependence E(c) in the Nernst coordinates E – ln c. Various solutions of the diffusion task for data analysis of pulse chronoamperometry and chronopotentiometry methods in the variant of intermittent titration techniques based on various geometric and phase configuration of diffusion space in intercalation electrode were considered. The dependences of the lithium diffusion coefficient D on potential of intercalation electrode were analyzed. The applicability of various models – electric equivalent circuit (EC) for the data analysis of the method of electrode impedance spectroscopy in the application to the intercalation electrode was discussed. The method of EC constructing on the basis of analysis of the shape of impedance spectrum assuming transport mechanism in lithium intercalation electrode was proposed. The dependences of found EC parameters on the electrode potential were analyzed. The kinetic parameters of lithium transport found from the data of different methods were compared. The difference in the values of kinetic parameters depending on the concentration perturbations in the electrode was shown.

Key words: 
lithium-ion battery
electrode material
diffusion coefficient
cyclic voltammetry
chronoamperometry
chronopotentio- metry
electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
Reference: 
  1. Cantalini C., Sun H. T., Faccio M., Pelino M., Santucci S., Lozzi L., Passacantando M. NO2 sensitivity of WO3 thin film obtained by high vacuum thermal evaporation. Sensors and Actuators B : Chemical, 1996, vol. 31, pp. 81–87.
  2. Nanba T., Takahashi T., Takada J., Osaka A., Miura Y., Yasui I., Kishimoto A., Kudo T. Characterization of amorphous tungsten trioxide thin films prepared by rf magnetron sputtering method. J. Non -Crystalline Solids, 1994, vol. 178, pp. 233–237.
  3. Meulenkamp E. A. Mechanism of WO3 Electrodeposition from Peroxy-Tungstate Solution. J. Electrochem. Soc., 1997, vol. 144, pp. 1664–1671.
  4. Biaggio S. R., Rocha -Filho R. C., Vilche J. R., Varela F. E., Gassa L. M. A study of thin anodic WO3 films by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Electrochim. Acta, 1997, vol. 42, pp. 1751–1758.
  5. Davazoglou D., Donnadieu A. Optical oscillator strengths and quantum mechanics matrix elements of WO3 polycrystalline thin films. Non -Crystalline Solids, 1994, vol. 169, pp. 64–71.
  6. Levi M. D., Aurbach D. Impedance of a Single Intercalation Particle and of Non -Homogeneous, Multilayered Porous Composite Electrodes for Li -ion Batteries. J. Phys. Chem. B., 2004, vol. 108, pp. 11693–11703.
  7. Levi M. D., Aurbach D. Frumkin intercalation isotherm D a tool for the description of lithium insertion into host materials : a review. Electrochim. Acta, 1999, vol. 45, pp. 167–185.
  8. Levi M. D., Wang C., Aurbach D. Two parallel diffusion paths model for interpretation of PITT and EIS responses from non -uniform intercalation electrodes. J. Electroanal. Chem., 2004, vol. 561, pp. 1–11.
  9. Meyers J. P., Doyle M., Darling R. M., Newman J. The Impedance Response of a Porous Electrode Composed of Intercalation Particles. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2000, vol. 147, pp. 2930–2940.
  10. Pajkossy T. Impedance of rough capacitive electrodes. J. Electroanal. Chem., 1994, vol. 364, pp. 111–125.
  11. Dokko K., Mohamedi M., Fujita Y., Itoh T., Nishizawa M., Umeda M., Uchida I. Kinetic Characterization of Single Particles of LiCoO2 by AC Impedance and Potential Step Methods. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2001, vol. 148, pp. A422–A426.
  12. Ivanishchev A. V., Churikov A. V., Ivanishcheva I. A., Zapsis K. V., Gamayunova I. M. Impedance Spectroscopy of Lithium -Carbon Electrodes. Russ. J. Electrochem., 2008, vol. 44, pp. 510–524.
  13. Churikov A. V., Pridatko K. I., Ivanishchev A. V., Ivanishcheva I. A., Gamayunova I. M., Zapsis K. V., Sycheva V. O. Impedance Spectroscopy of Lithium -Tin Film Electrodes. Russ. J. Electrochem., 2008, vol. 44, pp. 550–557.
  14. Churikov A. V., Ivanishchev A. V., Ivanishcheva I. A., Zapsis K. V., Gamayunova I. M., Sycheva V. O. Kinetics of Electrochemical Lithium Intercalation into Thin Tungsten (VI) Oxide Layers. Russ. J. Electrochem., 2008, vol. 44, pp. 530–542.
  15. Churikov A. V., Zobenkova V. A., Pridatko K. I. Lithium Intercalation into Titanium Dioxide Films from a Propylene Carbonate Solution. Russ. J. Electrochem., 2004, vol. 40, pp. 74–80.
  16. Levi M. D., Wang C., Aurbach D., Chvoj Z. Effect of temperature on the kinetics and thermodynamics of electrochemical insertion of Li -ions into a graphite electrode. J. Electroanal. Chem., 2004, vol. 562, pp. 187–203.
  17. Aurbach D., Levi M. D., Levi E., Telier H., Markovsky B., Salitra G. Common electroanalytical behavior of Li intercalation processes into graphite and transition metal oxides. J. Electrochem. Soc., 1998, vol. 145, pp. 3024–3034.
  18. Levi M. D., Gamolsky K., Aurbach D., Heider U., Oesten R. Determination of the Li -ion chemical diffusion coefficient for the topotactic solid -state reactions occurring via a two -phase or single -phase solid solution pathway. J. Electroanal. Chem., 1999, vol. 477, pp. 32–40.
  19. Levi M. D., Lu Z., Gofer Y., Cohen Y., Cohen Y., Aurbach D., Vieil E., Serose J. Simultaneous in -situ conductivity and cyclic voltammetry characterization of Li -ion intercalation into thin V2O5 films. J. Electroanal. Chem., 1999, vol. 479, pp. 12–20.
  20. Levi M. D., Wang C., Gnanaraj J. S., Aurbach D. Electrochemical behavior of graphite anode at elevated temperatures in organic carbonate solutions. J. Power Sources., 2003, vol. 119–121, pp. 538–542.
  21. Levi M. D., Cohen Y. S., Gofer Y., Aurbach D. Electrochemical responses of active metal insertion electrodes and electronically conducting polymers : common features and new insights. Electrochim. Acta, 2004, vol. 49, pp. 3701–3710.
  22. Markevich E., Levi M. D., Aurbach D. New insight into studies of the cycling performance of Li -graphite electrodes : a combination of cyclic voltammetry, electrochemical impedance, and differential self -discharge measurements. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2005, vol. 152, pp. A778–A786.
  23. Churikov A. V., Ivanishchev A. V., Ushakov A. V., Romanova V. O. Diffusion aspects of lithium intercalation as applied to the development of electrode materials for lithium -ion batteries. J. Solid State Electrochem., 2014, vol. 18, pp. 1425–1441.
  24. Wen C. J., Boukamp B. A., Huggins R. A., Weppner W. Thermodynamic and Mass Transport Properties of «LiAl». J. Electrochem. Soc., 1979, vol. 126, pp. 2258–2266.
  25. Montella C. Discussion of the potential step method for the determination of the diffusion coefficients of guest species in host materials Part I. Influence of charge transfer kinetics and ohmic potential drop. J. Electroanal. Chem., 2002, vol. 518, pp. 61–83.
  26. Montella C. Discussion of three models used for the investigation of insertion/extraction processes by the potential step chronoam- perometry technique. Electrochim. Acta, 2005, vol. 50, pp. 3746–3763.
  27. Montella C. Apparent diffusion coefficient of intercalated species measured with PITT. A simple formulation. Electrochim. Acta, 2006, vol. 51, pp. 3102–3111.
  28. Montella C., Michel R., Diard J. P. Numerical inversion of Laplace transforms. A useful tool for evaluation of chemical diffusion coefficients in ion -insertion electrodes investigated by PITT. J. Electroanal. Chem., 2007, vol. 608, pp. 37–46.
  29. Montella C., Michel R. New approach of electrochemical systems dynamics in the time domain under small -signal conditions : III Discrimination between nine candidate models for analysis of PITT experimental data from LixCoO2 film electrodes. J. Electroanal. Chem., 2009, vol. 628, pp. 97–112.
  30. Montella C. Re -examination of the potential -step chronoamperometry method through numerical inversion of Laplace transforms. General formulation and numerical solution. J. Electroanal. Chem., 2009, vol. 633, pp. 35–44.
  31. Montella C. Re -examination of the potential step chronoamperometry method through numerical inversion of Laplace transforms. Application examples. J. Electroanal. Chem., 2009, vol. 633, pp. 45–56.
  32. Churikov A. V. Chronoammetric determination of the lithium transfer rate in carbon electrodes. Russ. J. Electrochem., 2002, vol. 38, pp. 103–108.
  33. Churikov A. V., Volgin M. A., Pridatko K. I., Ivanishchev A. V., Gridina N. A., L’vov A. L. Electrochemical intercalation of lithium into carbon : a relaxation study. Russ. J. Electrochem., 2003, vol. 39, pp. 531–541.
  34. Churikov A. V., Volgin M. A., Pridatko K. I. On the determination of kinetic characteristics of lithium intercalation into carbon. Electrochim. Acta., 2002, vol. 47, pp. 2857–2865.
  35. Churikov A. V., Ivanischev A. V. Application of pulse methods to the determination of the electrochemical characteristics of lithium intercalates. Electrochim. Acta, 2003, vol. 48, pp. 3677–3691.
  36. Churikov A. V., Ivanishchev A. V., Ivanishcheva I. A., Sycheva V. O., Khasanova N. R., Antipov E. V. Determination of lithium diffusion coefficient in LiFePO4 electrode by galvanostatic and potentiostatic intermittent titration techniques. Electrochim. Acta, 2010, vol. 55, pp. 2939–2950.
  37. Ivanishchev A. V., Churikov A. V., Ushakov A. V. Lithium transport processes in electrodes on the basis of Li3V2(PO4)3 by constant current chronopotentiometry, cyclic voltammetry and pulse chronoamperometry. Electrochim. Acta, 2014, vol. 122, pp. 187–196.
  38. Levi M. D., Aurbach D. Diffusion coefficients of lithium ions during intercalation into graphite derived from the simultaneous measurements and modeling of electrochemical impedance and potentiostatic intermittent titration characteristics of thin graphite electrodes. J. Phys. Chem. B., 1997, vol. 101, pp. 4641–4647.
  39. Levi M. D., Lu Z., Aurbach D. Application of finite -diffusion models for the interpretation of chronoamperometric and electroc- hemical impedance responses of thin lithium insertion V2O5 electrodes. Solid State Ionics, 2001, vol. 143, pp. 309–318.
  40. Levi M. D., Lu Z., Aurbach D. Li -insertion into thin monolithic V2O5 films electrodes characterized by a variety of electroanalytical techniques. J. Power Sources, 2001, vol. 97–98, pp. 482–485.
  41. Levi M. D., Lancry E., Gizbar H., Gofer Y., Levi E., Aurbach D. Phase transitions and diffusion kinetics during Mg2+ – and Li+-ion insertions into the Mo6S8 chevrel phase compound studied by PITT. Electrochim. Acta, 2004, vol. 49, pp. 3201–3209.
  42. Markevich E., Levi M. D., Aurbach D. Comparison between potentiostatic and galvanostatic intermittent titration techniques for determination of chemical diffusion coefficients in ion -insertion electrodes. J. Electroanal. Chem., 2005, vol. 580, pp. 231–237.
  43. Levi M. D., Markevich E., Aurbach D. Comparison between Cottrell diffusion and moving boundary models for determination of the chemical diffusion coefficients in ion -insertion electrodes. Electrochim. Acta, 2005, vol. 51, pp. 98–110.
  44. Levi M. D., Demadrille R., Pron A., Vorotyntsev M. A., Gofer Y., Aurbach D. Application of a novel refinement method for accurate determination of chemical diffusion coefficients in electroactive materials by potential step technique. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2005, vol. 152, pp. E61–E67.
  45. Levi M. D., Markevich E., Wang C., Aurbach D. Chronoamperometric measurements and modeling of nucleation and growth, and moving boundary stages during electrochemical lithiation of graphite electrode. J. Electroanal. Chem., 2007, vol. 600, pp. 13–22.
  46. Vorotyntsev M. A., Levi M. D., Aurbach D. Spatially Limited Diffusion Coupled with Ohmic Potential Drop and/or Slow Interfacial Exchange : A New Method to Determine the Diffusion Time Constant and External Resistance from Potential. J. Electroanal. Chem., 2004, vol. 572, pp. 299–307.
  47. Lee S.-B., Pyun S.-I. Mechanism of lithium transport through an MCMB heat treated at 800–1200 °C. Electrochim. Acta, 2002, vol. 48, pp. 419–430.
  48. Chang W.-Y., Pyun S.-I., Lee S.-B. Kinetics of lithium transport through a hard carbon electrode studied by analysis of current transients. J. Solid State Electrochem., 2003, vol. 7, pp. 368–373.
  49. Lee S.-B., Pyun S.-I. The kinetics of lithium transport through a composite electrode made of mesocarbon -microbeads heat -treated at 800 °C investigated by current transient analysis. J. Solid State Electrochem., 2003, vol. 7, pp. 374–379.
  50. Go J.-Y., Pyun S.-I. A study on lithium transport through fractal Li1?d CoO2 film electrode by analysis of current transient based upon fractal theory. Electrochim. Acta, 2004, vol. 49, pp. 2551–2562.
  51. Jung K.-N., Pyun S.-I., Lee J.-W. An investigation of lithium transport through vanadium pentoxide xerogel film electrode by analyses of current transient and ac -impedance spectra. Electrochim. Acta, 2004, vol. 49, pp. 4371–4378.
  52. Lee J.-W., Pyun S.-I. Anomalous behaviour of hydrogen extraction from hydride -forming metals and alloys under impermeable boundary conditions. Electrochim. Acta, 2005, vol. 50, pp. 1777–1805.
  53. Go J.-Y., Pyun S.-I., Cho S.-I. An experimental study on cell -impedance controlled lithium transport through Li1?d CoO2 film electrode with fractal surface by analyses of potentiostatic current transient and linear sweep voltammogram. Electrochim. Acta, 2005, vol. 50, pp. 5435–5443.
  54. Lee J.-W., Pyun S.-I. A study on the potentiostatic current transient and linear sweep voltammogram simulated from fractal intercalation electrode : diffusion coupled with interfacial charge transfer. Electrochim. Acta, 2005, vol. 50, pp. 1947–1955.
  55. Go J.-Y., Pyun S.-I. Theoretical approach to cell -impedance -controlled lithium transportthrough Li1?d CoO2 film electrode with fractal surface : numerical analysis of generalised diffusion equation. Electrochim. Acta, 2005, vol. 50, pp. 3479–3487.
  56. Kim K.-H., Pyun S.-I., Jung K.-N. An investigation of cell -impedance -controlled lithium transport through LiCoO2/Li1?d Mn2O4 bilayer film electrode prepared by rf magnetron sputtering. Electrochim. Acta, 2006, vol. 52, pp. 152–160.
  57. Jung K.-N., Pyun S.-I. The cell -impedance -controlled lithium transport through LiMn2O4 film electrode with fractal surface by analyses of ac -impedance spectra,potentiostatic current transient and linear sweep voltammogram. Electrochim. Acta, 2006, vol. 51, pp. 4649–4658.
  58. Go J.-Y., Pyun S.-I. A review of anomalous diffusion phenomena at fractal interface for diffusion -controlled and non -diffusi- on -controlled transfer processes. J. Solid State Electrochem., 2007, vol. 11, pp. 323–334.
  59. Deiss E., Haringer D., Novak P., Haas O. Modeling of the charge–discharge dynamics of lithium manganese oxide electrodes for lithium -ion batteries. Electrochim. Acta, 2001, vol. 46, pp. 4185–4196.
  60. Cheng Y.-T., Verbrugge M. W. Evolution of stress within a spherical insertion electrode particle under potentiostatic and galvanostatic operation. J. Power Sources, 2009, vol. 190, pp. 453–460.
  61. Li J., Yang F., Xiao X., Verbrugge M. W., Cheng Y.-T. Potentiostatic intermittent titration technique (PITT) for spherical particles with finite interfacial kinetics. Electrochim. Acta, 2012, vol. 75, pp. 56–61.
  62. Han W., Hibino M., Kudo T. Hysteresis on the electrochemical lithium insertion and extraction of hexagonal tungsten trioxide. Influence of residual ammonium. Solid State Ionics, 2000, vol. 128, pp. 25–32.
  63. Podolske Ta K., Newman J. Proton Intercalation Hysteresis in Charging and Discharging Nickel Hydroxide Electrodes. J. Electrochem. Soc., 1999, vol. 146, pp. 2769–2779.
  64. Yin S.-C., Grondey H., Strobel P., Anne M., Nazar L. F. Electrochemical Property : Structure Relationships in Monoclinic Li3?yV2(PO4)3. J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 2003, vol. 125, pp. 10402–10411.
  65. Yin S.-C., Grondey H., Strobel P., Huang H., Nazar L. F. Charge Ordering in Lithium Vanadium Phosphates : Electrode Materials for Lithium -Ion Batteries. J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 2003, vol. 125, pp. 326–327.
  66. Carslaw H. S., Jaeger J. C. Conduction of heat in solids. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1959. 517 p.
  67. Levi M. D., Aurbach D. Simultaneous Measurements and Modeling of the Electrochemical Impedance and the Cyclic Voltammetric Characteristics of Graphite Electrodes Doped with Lithium. J. Phys. Chem. B., 1997, vol. 101, pp. 4630–4640.
  68. Umeda M., Dokko K., Fujita Y., Mohamedi M., Uchida I., Selman J. R. Electrochemical impedance study of Li -ion insertion into mesocarbon microbead single particle electrode : Part I. Graphitized carbon. Electrochim. Acta, 2001, vol. 47, pp. 885–890.
  69. Wang C., Appleby A.J., Little F. E. Electrochemical impedance study of initial lithium ion intercalation into graphite powders. Electrochim. Acta, 2001, vol. 46, pp. 1793–1813.
  70. Roh Y. B., Jeong K. M., Cho H. G., Kang H. Y., Lee Y. S., Ryu S. K., Lee B. S. Unique charge/discharge properties of carbon materials with different structures. J. Power Sources, 1997, vol. 68, pp. 271–276.
  71. Povarov Yu. M., Beketaeva L. A., Vorob’eva I. V. Impedans litievogo ehlektroda v organicheskih aprotonnyh sredah. [Impedance of lithium electrode in the media of organic aprotic solvents]. Elektrokhimiya, 1983, vol. 19, pp. 586–593.
  72. Povarov Yu. M., Beketaeva L. A., Puresheva B. K. Impedans litievogo ehlektroda v okislitel’nyh sredah. [Impedance of lithium electrode in the oxidizing solutions]. Elektrokhimiya, 1982, vol. 18, pp. 1340–1348 (in Russian).
  73. Povarov Yu. M., Vorob’eva I. V. Impedans litievogo ehlektroda v tionilhloridnyh ehlektrolitah. [Impedance of lithium electrode in thionyl chloride electrolytes]. Elektrokhimiya, 1982, vol. 18, pp. 1693–1696 (in Russian).
  74. Churikov A. V., Gamayunova I. M., Shirokov A. V. Ionic processes in solid -electrolyte passivating films on lithium. J. Solid State Electrochem., 2000, vol. 4, pp. 216–224.
  75. Churikov A. V., Nimon E. S., Lvov A. L. Impedance of Li -Sn, Li -Cd and Li -Sn -Cd alloys in propylene carbonate solution. Electrochim. Acta, 1997, vol. 42, pp. 179–189.
  76. Maier J. Defect Chemistry and Conductivity Effects in Heterogeneous Solid Electrolytes. J. Electrochem. Soc., 1987, vol. 134, pp. 1524–1535.
  77. Kliewer K. L., Koehler J. S. Space Charge in Ionic Crystals. I. General Approach with Application to NaCl. Phys. Rev., 1965, vol. 140, pp. A1226–A1240.
  78. Jamnik J., Gaberscek M., Meden A., Pejovnik S. Space-Charge at the Lithium-Lithium Chloride Interface. J. Electrochem. Soc., 1991, vol. 138, pp. 1582–1587.
  79. Dokko K., Fujita Y., Mohamedi M., Umeda M., Uchida I., Selman J. R. Electrochemical impedance study of Li -ion insertion into mesocarbon microbead single particle electrode : Part II. Disordered carbon. Electrochim. Acta, 2001, vol. 47, pp. 933–938.
  80. Yoon S., Kim H., Oh S. M. Surface modification of graphite by coke coating for reduction of initial irreversible capacity in lithium secondary batteries. J. Power Sources, 2001, vol. 94, pp. 68–73.
  81. Barsoukov E., Kim J.-H., Kim J.-H., Yoon C.-O., Lee H. Kinetics of lithium intercalation into carbon anodes : in situ impedance investigation of thickness and potential dependence. Solid State Ionics, 1999, vol. 116, pp. 249–261.
  82. Aurbach D., Markovsky B., Nimberger A., Levi E., Gofer Y. Electrochemical Li -Insertion Processes into Carbons Produced by Milling Graphitic Powders : The Impact of the Carbons’ Surface Chemistry. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2002, vol. 149, pp. A152–A161.
  83. Zhang S., Ding M. S., Xu K., Allen J., Jow T. R. Understanding Solid Electrolyte Interface Film Formation on Graphite Electrodes. Electrochem. and Solid -State Let., 2001, vol. 4, pp. A206–A208.
  84. Funabiki A., Inaba M., Ogumi Z. A. c. impedance analysis of electrochemical lithium intercalation into highly oriented pyrolytic graphite. J. Power Sources, 1997, vol. 68, pp. 227–231.
  85. Wang C., Appleby A. J., Little F. E. Low -Temperature Characterization of Lithium -Ion Carbon Anodes via Microperturbation Measurement. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2002, vol. 149, pp. A754–A760.
  86. Kulova T. L., Skundin A. M. Balance between reversible and irreversible processes during lithium intercalation in graphite. Russ. J. Electrochem., 2006, vol. 42, pp. 251–258.
  87. Pridatko K. I. Electrochemical insertion of lithium in thin tin films. Russ. J. Electrochem., 2006, vol. 42, pp. 63–70.
Received: 
19.09.2016
Accepted: 
19.09.2016
Published: 
30.11.2016